British Conscientious Objectors during the Second World War

During the Second World War, nearly 60,000 men (1 per cent of all men conscripted) and 900 women attested a conscientious objection in Britain. Most conscientious objectors (COs) opposed the war on religious grounds, although many objected due to moral, political, or humanitarian beliefs. Most, but not all, COs were from middle- or upper-class backgrounds. While some were unwilling to work in any capacity which contributed to the national war effort, many COs served in roles deemed to be of ‘national importance’.

The National Service (Armed Services) Act 1939 allowed for men to conscientiously object to military service subject to a successful civilian tribunal. Of the 60,000 men who professed a conscientious objection, 12,204 were rejected outright, while 3,577 were granted complete exemption. Some COs were imprisoned for refusing to engage with the tribunal process, although this was relatively rare (with only 300 men given a prison sentence). In total, 45,000 men were employed in roles which made important, non-military contributions to Britain’s Second World War effort. 

COs served in various capacities both domestically and abroad. Many were employed in agricultural or forestry work, while others worked in mines, as fire watchers, ambulance drivers, medics, and in bomb disposal units. Others served in non-combatant roles in the Army, many in the Non-Combatant Corps (NCC) – formed in 1940 for the employment of those who conscientiously objected to the war. Many also served in the Royal Army Medical Corps (RAMC) – a long-standing non-combatant body designed to provide medical services and save the lives of men serving in the British Army. Others worked alongside the military in a civilian capacity. COs in the Friends Ambulance Unit (FAU) – a re-creation of a First World War voluntary ambulance service established by Quakers – treated both military and civilian casualties on the home front and the battle front. Both the RAMC and FAU were popular choices for humanitarian reasons, with COs serving as medics, ambulance drivers, in blood transfusion, and in other roles across the globe. Indeed, COs spent time in Norway, Finland, Germany, France, Italy, Greece, Egypt, Palestine, Ethiopia, India, Burma, and China (among other places).

Each pin on the map below represents an individual CO at a particular point in their wartime service. In many, if not most, cases COs served in numerous roles in various locations across both Britain and beyond. As such, it would be impractical to chart the entire wartime experience of each CO. Instead, primarily drawing on letters, diaries, and oral testimonies, the map represents the remarkable scope, scale, and breadth of work undertaken by COs across the globe during the Second World War. It charts the relatively peaceable lives of COs in agricultural communities in the south of England, alongside the stories of objectors who faced significant danger at Dunkirk, El Alamein, Monte Casino, D Day, and as prisoners of war. It also details the contrasting emotional responses felt by COs when faced with war: doubts, dilemmas, and uncertainty often sat alongside steadfastness, bravery, and notions of duty. Complementing this, the map uncovers the broad range of societal and military attitudes towards objectors. COs were mistreated and drew criticism in certain quarters, but there was far more tolerance towards objectors than in the First World War. The infamous campaign of white feathers, used to point to the supposed cowardice and unmanliness of those out of uniform during the First World War, was for example not a widespread feature of the 1939–45 conflict. 

The map seeks to shine a light on the lives, experiences, and work of Britain’s Second World War COs. It should be noted that, as it would be difficult to accurately represent the fluid and constantly shifting borders and boundaries during the Second World War, the map used is a modern map and therefore reflective of modern geopolitics. It is also important to note that (due to a lack of sufficient archival material) it has not been possible in all cases to establish the precise location where COs served. In such instances, approximate locations have been used for illustrative purposes.

This website is designed for both a general audience and school pupils. To support this, the website includes a selection of learning resources here.

For more on Second World War COs, see the interviews in the Imperial War Museum’s Sound Archive and the collections held in the Peace Pledge Union Archive, London.

Banner Image: ‘Britain’s Home Front, 1939–1945: Conscientious Objector Tribunal’. © IWM (HU 62359)